Europe: From Paleolithic to Neolithic
In this section we will briefly go through the genetic breakpoints of Europe, beginning from the Initial Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic farmer migrations. The information below relies on two extensive recent studies: Posth et al. 2023 and Allentoft et al. 2024.
Overview
The genetic history of Paleolithic Europe can be roughly categorised into two periods: pre and post the Last Glacial Maximum (25,000-19,000 BP). In the pre-Last Glacial Maximum era, Europe had two distinct ancestral groups. The first group is represented by the individual Goyet-Q116-1 (35,000 BP) in Belgium, and the second group is represented by individuals from Kostenki 14 (32,000 BP) and Sunghir (34,000 BP) in western Russia.
The ancestry associated with Goyet-Q116-1 corresponds to the Aurignacian Period, a period that later transitioned into the Gravettian Culture (33-26,000 BP), giving rise to two ancestral clusters in Europe. Central, east, and southern Europe received a mixture related to Sunghir, resulting in an estimated 64% Sunghir and 36% Goyet-Q116-1-like admixture, known as the Vestonice Cluster. In contrast, the genetic cluster in west and southwest Europe, known as the Fournol Cluster, was closely linked to the ancestry represented by Goyet-Q116-1. This ancestry persisted during and after the LGM in west and southwest Europe.
The LGM period in southwest Europe is archaeologically associated with the Solutrean Culture. Samples from this period exhibit an intermediate genetic profile between preceding Fournol ancestry, associated with Gravettian Culture and succeeding Magdalenian Cultures, represented by the oldest Magadelanian associated sample El Miron.
Magdenalian Culture had two genetic clusters in itself. The first one is the Goyet-Q2 cluster with samples 15.000 years old (from France, Belgium, Germany) and the second one is the 19.000 years old El Miron cluster from Spain. Both clusters are distantly related to Goyet-Q116-1 although having significant contribution from the Eppi-Gravettian associated Villabruna Cluster.
After the LGM, the Eppi-Gravettian culture spread widely in south and southeast Europe. The ancestry related to this culture is called Villabruna Cluster, which, also will be known as the Western European Hunter-Gatherer (WHG) ancestry. This ancestry was not related to the preceding Gravettian associated Vestonice Cluster, which seemingly disappeared after the LGM. The Villabruna Cluster later largely replaced Magdelanian culture which was spread in southwest, west and central Europe. Villabruna/Oberkassel/WHG ancestry dominated most part of Europe until the Neolithic Age and then largely replaced by the Anatolian Neolithic Farmer migrations.
Timeline
Pre-LGM
The oldest genomes carrying ancestries that derive primarily from the lineage leading to present-day Europeans are Kostenki 14 (from 37 ka, with uncertain archaeological association from western Russia), Goyet Q116-1 (35 ka, Aurignacian-associated from Belgium) and Bacho Kiro 1653 (35 ka, probably Aurignacian-associated from Bulgaria)
Gravettian Period (33–26 ka):
Věstonice genetic cluster: Named after the Dolní Věstonice site in Czechia. Comprising Gravettian associated individuals from central-east and southern Europe (Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Krems-Wachtberg, Paglicci and Ostuni). Emerged by the genetic contribution from a Sunghir/Kostenki 14-related source. This genetic signature is shared among individuals associated with the archaeologically defined Gravettian culture in central and southern Europe and seemingly disappeared after the Last Glacial Maximum
Fournol genetic cluster: Comprising Gravettian-associated individuals from western and southwestern European sites (Ormesson, La Rochette, Fournol and two Serinyà cave sites (Mollet III and Reclau Viver).Fournol cluster is closely related to Aurignacian-associated individuals from Belgium dated to 35 ka (Goyet Q116-1 and Goyet Q376-3 individual).
During this period genetically intermediate samples between Vestonice and Fournol are also observed.
During LGM
Solutrean culture (24–19 ka): Emerged during the LGM in southwest Europe. The LGM is considered to have caused a demographic decline in large parts of Europe, with populations retracting to southern latitudes, to the Iberian peninsula and southern France.
Epigravettian culture: (24–12 ka): During the LGM Epigravettian culture seems to have gradually spread from the Balkans to Italy. The distinct ancestry represented by Epigravettian associated individuals is called Villabruna or Oberkassel cluster. This ancestry initially replaced the Vestonice Cluster in the region and later largely replaced Magdalenian associated ancestry in much of Europe.
Post LGM
Magdalenian Culture (19-14 ka): Succeeded from Solutrean Culture in Iberia and France and spread across eastern and central Europe. Ancestry represented by Magdalenian associated individuals (Goyet Q2) is distantly linked to the Goyet Q116-1 individual from Belgium dated to 35 ka. Magdalenian Culture and the ancestry associated with it largely replaced by the Epigravettian Culture
Epigravettian culture: (24–12 ka): Upon mostly replacing the Magdalenian Culture, Epigravettian associated Villabruna/Oberkassel (WHG) ancestry became the dominant and most widespread ancestry in Europe until the Mesolithic era. Around the Mesolithic, the ANE related population mixed with WHG appears in Eastern Europe, giving rise to Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG/Sidelkino Cluster).
Neolithic Transition
The arrival of Anatolian Farmer-related ancestry in different regions of Europe spans an extensive time period of over 3,000 years, from its earliest evidence in the Balkans (Lepenski Vir) at ∼8,700 BP to c. 5,900 BP in Denmark. These Neolithic migrations caused an East-West distinction along a boundary zone running from the Black Sea to the Baltic, causing the “Great Divide” in Europe. In the west of this division, Anatolian Farmer-related ancestry was largely replacing the local hunter gatherers (WHG).
However, on the eastern side of the ‘“Great Divide’” no ancestry shifts can be observed during this period. In the East Baltic region, the Ukraine and Western Russia, local HG ancestry (represented by the EHG) prevailed until ∼5,000 BP without noticeable input of Anatolian-related farmer ancestry.
- Allentoft, M.E., et al. (2024). Population genomics of post-glacial western Eurasia. Nature 625, 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06865-0
- Posth, C. et al. (2023). Palaeogenomics of Upper Palaeolithic to Neolithic European hunter-gatherers. Nature, 615(7950), 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05726-0
